Essay on Nike Just Do It - 2850 Words

Introduction Nike, Inc. is a sporting goods and apparel company founded by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight in 1972. Nike, being a world-wide phenomenon, has â€Å"more than 35,000 employees across six continents and in more than 160 countries around the globe. Through our suppliers, shippers, retailers and other service providers, we directly or indirectly employ nearly one million people† (Nike, Inc.). All this is done to help Nike fulfill their goal to â€Å"carry on [Bill Bowerman’s] legacy of innovative thinking, whether to develop products that help athletes of every level of ability reach their potential, or to create business opportunities that set Nike apart from the competition and provide value for our shareholders† (Nike, Inc.). Ultimately,†¦show more content†¦They designed the Nike Swoosh and found Steve Prefontaine as the first person to wear the brand name. He was a runner who â€Å"electrified the packed stands† (Nike, Inc.) and became known as t he â€Å"soul of Nike† while pushing the brand of Nike to others. Nike continued to grow larger and today covers sporting gear for every sport and type of clothing apparel. They began investing in athletes and soon had athletes of the caliber of Tiger Woods, Lance Armstrong, Michael Jordan and plenty of others. â€Å"Today, Nike continues to seek new and innovative ways to develop superior athletic products, and creative methods to communicate directly with our consumers. The company has continued to expand in new ways, including strong growth in China and a deal to become the official sponsor of the National Football League (NFL) beginning in 2012 (Nike, 2013). â€Å"The company recorded revenues of $24,128 million during the financial year ended May 2012(FY2012), an increase of 15.7% over FY2011.The net profit was $2,223 million in FY2012, an increase of 4.2% over FY2011† (NIKE Inc., 2013). Nike continues to lead the competition, with many changes and ever-evolving products, ethical issues, and struggles within its organization along the way. In the words of Mark Parker, Nikes President and CEO, â€Å"At NIKE, Inc. we run a complete offense, and it’s based on a core commitment to innovation. That’s how we stay opportunistic, serve the athlete, reward ourShow MoreR elatedNike : Just Do It?714 Words   |  3 PagesJordan Touchet Dr. Gutierrez ENGL 1301 .2023 14 September 2016 Just Do It? It is known around the world that the phrase â€Å"Just do it† is associated with Nike, a well trusted brand. In 2012, Nike had come up with a new advisement campaign â€Å"Find Your Greatness†. Nike released this campaign during the 2012 London Olympic games which could not have been the more perfect time. During this time 38% of adults and 17% of children were obese in America. (Obesity and Overweight) Through this campaign it provesRead MoreNike : Just Do It1385 Words   |  6 PagesNike: Just Do It. McDonald’s: I’m Lovin’ It. Nowadays, everything we buy has a message behind it. Advertisements are filled with motivational, emotional, and spiritual messages that provoke and inspire. In a world where advertisements are as abundant as flies and just as annoying, marketers must find a way to rekindle consumers’ interest in products. Marketers need to find a way to not just coexist with culture, but to become it. In order to become a part of culture, marketers must make advertisementsRead MoreNike Just Do It Campaign3535 Words   |  15 PagesNike â€Å"Just Do It† Campaign Meaghan Carter-Morris Valdosta State University The campaign I decided to research was the â€Å"Just Do It† campaign done by Nike. Named after the Greek goddess of victory, it is no surprise that Nike has been one of the most successful sports apparel franchises in history. The brand was born through the collaboration of Oregon track coach Bill Bowerman and Blue Ribbon Sports associate Phil Knight. Seeking a profitable career without giving up his love for sports, PhilRead MoreEssay about Physical Education, â€Å"Just Do It!† –NIKE2193 Words   |  9 PagesJoyce). An estimated 22 percent of American children under the age 18 are exposed to secondhand smoke in the home. It is estimated that 2000 American young people begin smoking each day (Shannon, Joyce). These young people are usually influenced to do so by either their peers or lack of self control. Physical education can be a major force in helping children socialize with others successfully and provide opportunities to learn positive people skills. Esp ecially during late childhood and adolescenceRead MoreNike Ad Campaign Analysis1272 Words   |  6 PagesNike Advertisement Analysis Advertisements have been used for years to sell products. As long as there have been consumers there have been ads, although in many different media. Different companies or groups release ads to promote a certain product, idea, or brand. Nike is no exception. Nike has been a leading brand in sports for 46 years. They are most known for their athletic shoes, but Nike manufactures all sorts of athletic apparel as well as equipment. Nike publishes many printed advertisementsRead MoreNike Ethics and Human Violations1308 Words   |  6 PagesLike other large corporations, Nike looked to expand their operations outside North America. Many companies do this because of the law and wage demands of the United States making overseas operations very appealing. Employment laws are scarce and labor is cheap in most third world countries and can be easily become targeted by giant corporations such as Nike. In the beginning, Nike probably selected countries like Indonesia and Vietnam because of the vast poverty level and wage demand given theRead MorePersuasive Speech For Nike840 Words   |  4 Pagesthe slogan that stands out to me happens to be Nikes,  ¨Just do it. ¨ In a commercial aired on the 25th anniversary of the slogan, the theme is to  ¨Just do it ¨ even if the odds are in favor of your opponent. The 90-second commercial begins by picturing average athletes who are pressured to go to the next level and perform with professional athletes, it ends with one of the best athletes of all time, LeBron James dunking a basketball. Nike does an effective job of advertising its products by usingRead MoreNike And New Balance : Nike937 Words   |  4 PagesNike and New Balance Introduction Nike and New Balance both are companies that sell sports apparel. Nike brand is one of the most popular brands and has been around years and has the popular slogan â€Å"Just Do It†. Nike’s goal is to make products to every person by making sports apparel that will decrease injuries, enhance performance, and lastly that will feel good to wear. On the other hand, New Balance is not as popular. New Balance is still trying to become one of the top brands for sports apparelRead MoreMarketing Analysis : Nike And Nike846 Words   |  4 Pagesfan or a person that has never played a sport in their lives. When I optically discern that check logo I ken it can only be one company. That company is Nike.Now Nike is arguably one of the most recognizable clothing or sportswear companies in the world. Strangely enough out of the fifty-one plus years they don’t have their own magazine. Nike sends their business to the best outlet as far as shoes, sportswear and equipment which is Eastbay. Eastbay is most popular for being an online catalog.As farRead MoreWhy Is Nike the Biggest Training Shoe Company in the World1222 Words   |  5 Pagesbecome a basic part just about everyone s wardrobes. This is due to both the increasing numbers of people exercising and the trend towards casual apparel. One of the most popular brands in the world is Nike. Competition is strong at all levels within the industry, especially among the leaders. However, Nike has successfully differentiated from these competitors. This essay will concentrate on what makes Nike shoes standing out from the rest. Starting from making running shoes, Nike had branched out

Edgar Allan Poe Life and Works Essay - 2848 Words

nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Edgar Allan Poe was a literary genius of his time. His works may seem eccentric but beneath the words and stories lies a solemn, alone boy whose only way of comfort and relief was through his pen. Of the critical reviews I have studied pertaining to Poe, never has such a varied difference of opinions been presented or suggested towards a writer. It is thought that his life had a major influence on his writing and by reading many of his pieces I agree with that statement. Edgar Poe was born in Boston on January 19, 1809 to actors Elisabeth Arnold Poe and David Poe Junior. Edgar had a brother Henry, who was a year older than him, and a younger sister, Rosalie. His mother and father separated a couple months†¦show more content†¦When his family returned to Richmond he was known as Edgar Poe rather then Edgar Allan to put emphasis on the fact that he was not formally adopted. Edgar adored Fanny Allan, but her constant illnesses made her less than an ideal mother. When Edgar was fourteen he became infatuated with a fellow classmate’s mother, Jane Stonard. Whenever he felt discouraged or unhappy he would visit her. He only knew her for a year when suddenly she died of tuberculosis. Edgar was notably affected by her death, and his behavior drastically changed. Conflicts arose at home which resulted in Edgar becoming sulky and ill tempered towards his family. Mr. Allan interpreted Edgar’s bad mood as a sign of †thanklessness† for all he had done for Edgar. On March 26, 1825 William Galt, the owner of the Allan’s house, died. The Allans inherited his estate, which equaled to an astounding sum of three fourths of a million dollars including the house and three land estates. Afterwards, John Allan bought a house called Moldavia, which was very impressive and appeared to more of an estate than a house. By this time, Edgar was now sixteen and a half years old. He had finished his early education and was now preparing for the university and his life. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In February of 1826, Edgar enrolled at the University of Virginia. Edgar had high ambitions in the area of languages. His courses included ancient and modern languages including the studyShow MoreRelatedThe Life and Works of Edgar Allan Poe Essay1487 Words   |  6 Pages Throughout the life of Edgar Allan Poe, he suffered many unfortunate events and endured several difficult situations. Some speculate that it was these experiences that helped to formulate the famous writing style of Edgar Allan Poe. His dark tales such as The Masque of the Red Death and The Tell-Tale Heart are horrific, and his poems such as Alone and The Raven show evidence that his life experiences influenced their dreariness. Poes story plots and his own life are undeniably related andRead MoreThe Life and Work of Edgar Allan Poe Essay550 Words   |  3 PagesEdgar Allan Poes style of writing is typical of the styles of writing during the Age of Romanticism. His poems and short stories were heavily influenced by his life experiences from a young boy to a well renowned writer. He lived his life in poverty, moving from one job to the other and from city to city, yet he is still one of the most widely read American authors today. Edgar Allan Poe was born on January 19, 1809 in Boston, Massachusetts. Poes home life was very unstable. His father, DavidRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe: His Life and Works705 Words   |  3 PagesEdgar Allan Poe was born in Massachusetts in 1809 and was orphaned by the time by the age of 2 (Fisher ix). Edgar lived with his godparents, and excelled in school but he had an irascible temper and was prone to alcoholism (Fisher vi). He first began his writing career by entering several â€Å"fiction contests† that was being held by newspapers in New England, and went on to write and publish 1 novel, and several short stories and poems (Fisher vii). He married his 14 year old cousin in 1836 and supportedRead MoreEssay about The Work and Life of Edgar Allan Poe1994 Words   |  8 PagesA bit of Edgar Allan Poes life had been molded into each piece of his work. This provided his readers and critics with a better understanding of Poes life. Poe displayed his greatest lifes achievements and his worst disappointments in a series of stories and poems created throughout his whole life. It is the goal of this research paper to reveal symbolic facts about Poe?s life and define these hidden parallels in some of his most famous works.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Edgar Allan Poe was born on January 19, 1809Read More The Life and Work of Edgar Allan Poe Essay867 Words   |  4 Pages Edgar Allan Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to parents who were traveling actors. His father David Poe Jr. died probably in 1810. Elizabeth Hopkins Poe died in 1811, leaving three children. Edgar was taken into the home of a merchant from Richmond named John Allan. The remaining children were cared for by others. Poes brother William died young and sister Rosalie later became insane. At the age of five Poe could recite passages of English poetry. Later one of his teachers in Richmond said:Read MoreEdgar Allan Poe : His Life Influenced His Work1093 Words   |  5 Pages Edgar Allan Poe: How His Life Influenced His Work Edgar Allan Poe was an American author known for his works of depression and misfortune. Throughout his lifetime, Poe would never gain fame. It was only after his death that the true genius of Edgar Allan Poe was discovered. Poe frequently used his life occurrences—as terrible as they were—to influence his writings. It is through his writings that one can delve into the mind of Edgar Allan Poe and discover how his life truly was. Edgar Allan PoeRead MoreBrianna Ruiz-Vannerson. Leonard Miller. Enc1102. Feb. 231548 Words   |  7 PagesMiller ENC1102 Feb. 23 2017 The Compelling Mind of Edgar Allan Poe Through: â€Å"Lenore† and â€Å"The Raven† Throughout the life of esteemed author Edgar Allan Poe, there have been many time that this extraordinary man’s life has been turned upside down with grief. His first encounter with this wretched demon was when he was no older than three years of age. The mother who birthed him dies and his father abandons them before her death (â€Å"Edgar Allan Poe†). He then is separated from his brother and sisterRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe; Fame Inspired by a Tragic Life865 Words   |  4 Pagespoet, Edgar Allan Poe, had been plagued by grief from an early age. He was an amazing poet and author who just happened to have a darker story. Many who have studied this prestigious man feel that his works, though magnificent, were extremely dark. Some believe it was nothing more then a fancy for him to spin such gruesome tales. Others feel his work was manipulated by the misfortune of his past. These people have actually found evidence that agrees with this statement. The works of Edgar Alla n PoeRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe Research Paper1195 Words   |  5 Pagesand Comp 1 2 December 2010 Edgar Allan Poe His works and life relating to â€Å"Annabel Lee† [pic] Many poets and story writers write their stories based upon events and aspects of their life. They do this because it is so relatable and easy to write about because there is some truth in the words. Edgar Allan Poe is said to be one of these because his stories actually relate to his tragic, love stricken life. He is known to lead an overall depressing life that was full of loss and griefRead MoreAnalysis Of Edgar Allan Poe s The Raven And The Fall Of The House Of Usher 896 Words   |  4 PagesEdgar Allan Poe is an extremely well known American writer and is famous for his horrific and mysterious works such as, â€Å"The Raven† and â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher.† Poe was born in 1809 in Boston, Massachusetts in an era that seems to have many dark and ominous writers and pieces of literature originating from that time period. Poe is said to have launched the interest in many of the detective type stories that we read from modern day writers. â€Å"In the early 1800s, romanticism was the dominant

Bead Bar Consultant Activity Free Essays

The information technology aspect is a rapidly booming industry in the present influences almost all of the relevant activities in the social and economic fields. Because of this significant influence, most of the major social and economic industries rely much to the value of information and the effects of their exchange in the operations of each respective organization. However, because of the dependence of most economic and social transactions to the value of information, several risk issues are now being considered influential and significant to the information operations. We will write a custom essay sample on Bead Bar Consultant Activity or any similar topic only for you Order Now Included in this aspect are the security threats imposed by (1) poorly written software or improperly configured systems, (2) computer viruses and worms, (3) external breaches, and (4) internal breaches. The first issue posts some significant threat because poorly written or configured software are more vulnerable to breach attack and viruses. Aside from this, poorly made softwares are also likely to become unstable and unreliable for actual use because of the negative characteristics that are likely to have been overlooked in the use of the system. Computer viruses and worms on the other hand tend to alter the normal processes in the information system causing significant leaks or instability in the operations. External and internal breaches are both threats on the literal means as they manifest unauthorized access to the informations though they vary only from the nature of the source. 2. Develop a security awareness-training plan for employees and franchisees. Knowing the significant threats to information security is an important aspect in the development of a security awareness plan for each organization. In general, the plan must be able to address each of the known threats including anticipation, development of a defense, and the prevention of future occurrences. The security awareness plan must classify mainly into two approaches namely the information protection and the physical security plan. The first encompassed the protection of the information through firewalls and security system, the protection of the storage facilities, and the access of these informations. The physical security must encompassed the actual factors involve in the protection such as the people involved in the information and others. The security plan must mainly anticipate the threat through developing a protection against known breach and virus infection, scrutinize and identify the access, prevent any unauthorized connection, and report the possibilities of leaks and the cases of intrusion. Most importantly in the security plan is the constant update, regular development and the close monitoring of the protection system to ensure its effectiveness and reliability against the threats to the information system. 3. Which Internet-based data backup plans should be used? Part of the security plan, which the organization itself must consider critically, is the aspect of recovery and backup for any intrusion disaster to their information system. Included in this concern is the backup system of the information system and operation of the organization, which is significant for their recovery process. Some of the common approaches to address this need are establishing a security partner to act as a storage facility of the backup data of the organization. These security partners are commonly internet-based serving as the primary data backup plan of most organization for situation of critical intrusion, infection or breach. The development of the internet-based data backup plan must also be extensive as they are similarly critically to the security plan. Several issues and aspects must be satisfied in this data backup plan such as their protection in terms of alteration, tampering or intrusion, isolation, and the constant update of the backup solution. How to cite Bead Bar Consultant Activity, Papers

Nuclear Waste Disposal free essay sample

How the Concerned Public is Involved in Decision Making Thesis Statement: Nuclear waste disposal is a complex process and it requires the cooperation from the public sector to aid the government and the scientists in order to ensure safe and successful nuclear waste disposal programs. I. Nuclear Waste Disposal: The Players and the Challenge A. DOE responsible for disposal B. Other entities concerned (public) C. Problems concerning waste disposal (toxicity, costs, technical difficulties etc) D. The major issues: lack of good communication between public and officials II. The Challenges of Nuclear Waste Transportation A. Volume and Radiation B. Costs C. Public fear and opposition D. Scientists vs. People III. Some Solutions: Integrating the People A. Scientists + People B. Some people (immigrants, children) might require specialized communication efforts in order to gain their participation C. Integrating professionals who can better understand the situation and the problems Nuclear Waste Disposal: The Players and the Challenge The department that is responsible for the nuclear waste disposal is the U. We will write a custom essay sample on Nuclear Waste Disposal or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page S. Department of Energy (DOE). This department has to face certain very complex decisions about how and where to dispose the waste. The transportation of these hazardous materials is also very important and DOE has to come up with the best and safest possible techniques in order to do so. The citizens of the United States are also very concerned when it comes to the disposal of nuclear waste (Riley et al 1993). The most commonly perceived problem about nuclear waste is that it is extremely toxic and hazardous. People are always concerned about being contaminated. Another cleanup issue that is important is that the waste is in very large volumes and this makes its transportation very difficult. There are also very large-scale implications of the potential severe human and environmental impacts that nuclear waste can have on our soil. Disposal of nuclear waste also requires a lot of technical expertise and is a very complex process and this adds to the problems. In addition, this is a relatively new thing and there is lack of experience on the part of the people who manage nuclear waste disposal. Also involved in nuclear waste management is â€Å"a legacy of secrecy, staggering costs, a history of inequitable practices, and a jumble of intricate federal and state regulations† (Drew et al 263). The inclusion of the many decision-making entities also makes this problem more complex. These entities include â€Å"tribal, state, and local government agencies; regulators; citizen groups; and contractors† (Drew et al 263). Both the complexities of the process itself as well as the large number of decision makers involved makes nuclear waste disposal a very complex problem. It requires the cooperation from all these entities to ensure a safe and successful nuclear waste disposal programs. This article shall discuss the various ways in which everyone, including the DOE, can come together and help reach a solution that is beneficial to everyone. For the purpose of this paper, we shall consider the term ‘stakeholders. ’ This term is defined as the people who are interested in or are affected by the U. S. DOE cleanup. Citizen groups, DOE managers and contractors, regulators, the state and local governments, and the general public are all included as ‘stakeholders’. The tribal people feel that they are a separate part and thus they are referred to as being outside the definition of ‘stakeholders. ’ They shall be referred to as the ‘tribes’. Some of the questions that have to be asked in this scenario include: â€Å"What are the major issues? Who is involved and who is absent from the discussions? What information do people need, and how can it be best presented? What tools and approaches enable stakeholders and tribes to participate in meaningful dialogue with these issues? † (Drew et al 264). The answers to these questions are extremely important as they will work to provide a framework for the improvement of the current methods and also come up with new and better ways of solving the problems. To facilitate a dialogue on this situation, the Consortium for Risk Evaluation with Stakeholder Participation (CRESP) took part in putting together three stakeholder and tribal interactions involving nuclear waste transport. It would be relevant to note that CRESP â€Å"is a national consortium of university-based researchers operating under a grant from the DOE. An important goal for CRESP is to improve the dialogue among decision makers, technical specialists, and interested and affected parties to create more sustainable, understandable, and acceptable nuclear waste transport decisions† (Drew et al 264). The results from these activities are presented in this paper and they provide some recommendations for DOE to make their facilities better. The Challenges of Nuclear Waste Transportation The clean up of the nuclear weapons production facilities is the responsibility of the DOE. There are some 140 sites in 26 states and territories (U. S. DOE 1999). The sizes of these sites vary as some of them are very large while others are small, being only a few acres. The largest site is the Idaho National Environmental Engineering Laboratory (INEEL) in southeastern Idaho, which is larger than 900 square miles. This used to be a weapon complex and has produced a very large amount of waste both in terms of volume (36 million [m. sup. 3]) and radioactivity (1 billion Ci) (U. S. DOE 1997a). The term ‘waste’ is used to denote â€Å"solids or liquids that are radioactive, hazardous or both (U. S. DOE 1997a). Waste comes in several forms, including high-level waste, transuranic waste, low-level waste, mixed low-level waste, residues from mining operations called tailings or 11e(2) by-product material, hazardous waste, and other waste† (Drew et al 265). The high-level waste usually emits a high level of radiation and it has the potential to be more toxic than usual. â€Å"low level waste† emits lesser level s of radiation but that does not mean that it is safer than the â€Å"high level waste†. This is one of the reasons for confusion about nuclear waste disposal and transportation among stakeholders and tribes. The waste first has to be stabilized by altering their physical or chemical properties, by changing the position of the waste, or by â€Å"erecting some physical or institutional barrier so that wastes are less likely to come in contact with people or the environment (examples of physical and institutional barriers are fences and deed restrictions, respectively)† (Drew et al 266). The cleanup activities cost almost about $6 billion per year (fiscal year 1992-fiscal year 2002) (U. S. DOE 2000, 2002). Sometimes it is necessary for transporting the nuclear wastes and other hazardous materials from one site to another. This is done to separate the waste from the smaller sites so that they can be closed and then used for other purposes. The Yucca Mountain, Nevada, has another special facility that is proposed for the long-term storage of high-level waste. This project is more than a decade behind schedule and may never open due to technical and political obstacles. There is a lot of intense opposition to the transportation of nuclear waste. According to many researches, the public is reported to have a very high fear of radiation risks than any other types of risk (Mills and Neuhauser, Slovic et al 1979, 1991a, 781-785, 36-39, 1603-1607). Answers from several surveys, the public also perceives that the specific problem of waste transportation is also very problematic. â€Å"A survey of Oregon residents about transporting nuclear waste using the state highway system found that public concerns about health and safety issues were high, while confidence and trust in public officials were low† (Drew et al 268). People in Idaho were found to be more concerned about the use of trucks to transport the transport nuclear waste (McBeth and Oakes 421-427). Feldman and Hanahan surveyed neighborhoods that were very close to a radioactively contaminated site and it was found that more respondents favored off-site management of wastes than on-site management, but noted that written comments indicated a concern with exporting or transferring the problem elsewhere, ensuring the careful transport of contaminated soil while avoiding contamination of additional sites through transport (1344-1352). In the early 1990s, the DOE realized that its nuclear waste cleanup strategy required a lot public involvement and it cannot proceed without letting the public in on the procedures and processes. This was a good idea but there are many technical complexities that are still considered to be a barrier for meaningful perception (Probst and Lowe; Bowman). â€Å"Many researchers and decision makers believe that average citizens simply cannot understand or discuss nuclear waste transport issues, radiation hazards, or regulatory requirements† (Drew et al 270). There have been many documented examples in which the average person have been involved in solving some highly complex and intricate issues and been able to implement some change that is meaningful. Kaplan (67-83) has documented the early history of public participation activities with DOE. He has strongly argued that the citizens are not mentally capable of handling complex situations that call for a lot of technical expertise. On the other hand, Bonano et al. (35-57) have depicted that the â€Å"stakeholders can work with experts on highly technical DOE cleanup decisions to formulate recommendations. Common to these examples is a concerted effort to provide participants with at least some degree of specialized knowledge, information, or training† (Drew et al 272). The important thing here is not the public but the scientists involved in the discourse. The scientists must try to open up their minds and think more on the lines of the nonprofessionals. They need to ask questions such as, â€Å"what information do participants need to engage in the process, who is participating currently in waste cleanup dialogues, and, perhaps more important, who is missing from the discussion? Finally, how can scientists present information in ways that foster participation? † (Drew et al 272). Involving the people to contribute effectively and productively is the key here and it is up to the scientists to clarify the road for the public intervention. After all, it is the public that fears the most and the scientists are working on new methods of safety for the public’s safe. This is why public involvement is very necessary for the DOE to come up with an effective and safe nuclear waste disposal program. What Should be Done: Some Themes and Lessons The most important thing that has come up with the discourses setup by the CRESP is that the scientists need to work with stakeholders and tribes to develop creative methods to make complex information accessible to the lay public. The scientists should educate the public about the possible hazards of radiation exposure and at the same time disallow the wrongful and ambiguous information that many people have in their heads. The most important group of people to be targeted for this kind of education would be the workers at a nuclear facility and also the people who live close by. â€Å"Toward that end, researchers should not only continue to explore creative applications but also evaluate their contributions to public participation processes† (Drew et al 280). A very few number of studies have been conducted on the relevance of the public participation with nuclear waste disposal programs and this is one area for future research. Some of the underrepresented groups of people might need some specialized communication efforts to ensure participation. These people can include the Spanish-speaking etc. The younger people should not be left out of this discourse either and they should also be made aware of the problems, solutions, and the need for their active role in the solutions. It is also very important to include technologically expert people from the stakeholders and tribes. These people are very important to target since they would be better able to understand the underlying problems that the DOE might be facing and thus they would be better able to help by giving their advice on the situations. Another important fact is that these experts can also disseminate the information to other people in nonprofessional terms and succeed where DOE has failed. It is difficult to have these people participate because they are very busy most of the times. In addition, many of these people felt that the issues that had to be discussed were not so important so that they never attended. Many people are simply not aware of or interested in the DOE cleanup because the issues are extremely complicated. Conclusion This article has discussed the various problems that the DOE faces in nuclear waste disposal and how these problems are elevated because of non-participation from the public sector. Even though many of the stakeholders and tribes are willing to participate in these issues, these people usually, believe that access to more technical information is required by them in order to make the participation effective and to make their decisions count. In order for the participation to be meaningful, it is very important that the decision process and the technical information should be as transparent as possible and it should also be accessible to the wide range of potential participants, which means everyone from the public sector. It was also noted that the people tend to engage in productive participation when they are allowed to interact with technical experts in a small group. The government and the DOE should come up with various methods by which they can involve more public participation and also get as much input from the public as possible. This would ensure that the DOE comes up with the best and safest possible program for nuclear waste disposal. The scientists and the government should work closely with the stakeholders and the tribal groups in order to develop programs that provide the technical resources needed for meaningful citizen participation in these complex decisions.

Why Content Marketing is a Commitment Not a Campaign

Most marketers today understand the potential power of content to engage potential customers. However, many still underestimate the commitment required to deliver content that their target audience will discover and truly value. Consumers today are exposed to more online content than ever before, so it’s even more challenging to rise above the noise. In order compete in this new digital environment, brands need a long-term content strategy. Free Actionable Bonus: Looking to elevate your content strategy? Get our our complete guide to creating a content strategy, plus a free content planning template and a list of 30+ places to distribute content Content Marketing is Not Advertising Many companies still treat online content as an ad campaign, but the goals of content marketing are completely different. If you expect instant results from online content, you’re approaching it in the wrong way, and this will ultimately harm your brand. Content marketing takes commitment; marketers shouldn’t think about it like an ad campaign. The Problem With Ads The trouble with throwing money at online advertising is that there’s no long-term value for consumers. Ads may deliver short-term gains, but they don’t give consumers the same long-term benefits as quality content. Consumers are no longer comfortable with being interrupted as they search for information online. Ads are a distraction; they remind us of traditional mass media advertising when brands try to convince us to buy things we don’t really want. Unless you run a company with an unlimited ad budget, the most cost-effective way to engage consumers is through content marketing. It gives power to brands of any size to inspire and connect with consumers in a less intrusive way, but in a way that still drives potential leads along the sales funnel toward a sale. In contrast to advertising, content marketing also has the power to develop brand advocates. A loyal following of people who enjoy your content are much more likely to trust your brand and talk about it to others. You may get a sales spike with an ad, but brand advocates can help your business grow for years to come. To remain competitive, modern marketers are abandoning marketing campaigns in favour of constant communication, because consumers want to read or view content when it suits them. They’re searching for solutions to their problems at all hours of the day, from locations all over the world. They want to find answers when they’re ready, and they expect a mix of content, from social media content to more in-depth content like white papers and case studies. As a content marketer, you need to make sure you have a diverse mix of content online, ready and waiting for your next customer. Building Relationships According to Google’s Zero Moment of Truth study, 88 percent of consumers research before they buy, consulting an average of 10.4 sources. So it’s important to start building a body of content that reaches your target audience on the right platforms. The more time potential leads spend engaging with your content, the more knowledge they gain, and they begin to see your company as a credible resource. In time, leads will be ready to take further action, whether it’s downloading gated content or making a call to sales. You have to become the go-to company for knowledge, expertise, and practical solutions. When you build these relationships, the hottest leads will come to you. This route to converting leads may take longer, but in the long run it significantly drives down conversion costs. Patience Rewards Committing yourself to a long-term content strategy is like setting up a savings account; the value may not look like much in the early days, but after a few years you begin to see the impact of your investment. Instead of just looking at sales figures, look at how your older pieces of content are performing in terms of social engagement, search engine rankings, website traffic, and brand loyalty; over time, you should start to see an increasing return on your initial investment. Commit to Content Marketing for Long-Term Success If you want to see the best results from content marketing, you have to commit to it. Don’t worry if you don’t see great results immediately; just focus on delivering valuable content to your audience on a regular basis. American Express’ Open Forum is a great example of a brand doing content marketing right. Its platform enables professionals to share their knowledge and ask for advice, with a team of employees managing conversations and providing information and guidance. It provides value to users without selling their product directly. But helping one user is enough; others will find the advice useful and the effect multiplies over time. You have to be prepared to invest more time in planning your content strategy, but delivering content that really connects with your target audience will help your business over time by decreasing the cost per each conversion. As a marketer, your choice is simple: do you want to solve problems consumers have, or interrupt their online experience with ads? Do you need quality content to support your content marketing? Constant Content connects you with thousands of professional writers able to create articles, ebooks, product descriptions and other assets to tell your brand story, drive SEO and win sales.

Hell-Heaven Essay Example

Hell Hell-Heaven Paper Hell-Heaven Paper Laura Anderson English 102-3 Dr. Spence September 14, 2011 Lost and Found Love They say it is better to have loved and lost, than to never have loved at all. But, what about a love that one must hide and keep secret? Or what about a love that you didn’t even know was there? In â€Å"Hell-Heaven† by Jhumpa Lahiri, Boudi, a Bengali-American woman is trapped in a loveless marriage. She discovers the loyalty, comfort, and fondness that goes with growing old with another person. Through great friendship and bond, heartbreak and lost love, Boudi discovers that there is more than handholding and giddiness in a marriage. According to Usha, Boudi’s daughter and the narrarator of the story, there was not a lot of love between her parents. Their marriage was an arrangement made in order to keep their parents happy. They had nothing in common, no emotional bond, and were complete strangers before they were married. The only thing that Boudi was grateful for in their marriage was that she did not have to live in the country with her in-laws and their rules. While walking around the streets in Cambridge one afternoon Boudi is approached by a fellow Bengali, who was new to America. He was invited back home with Boudi and Usha to have a proper Bengali meal, and from then on he was a member of the family. Adopted into the family as an older brother-like to Boudi and an uncle to Usha, Pranab Kaku offers an emotional bond that is not seen nor felt from Boudi’s husband. Boudi and Pranab Kaku had many things in common, came from the same neighborhood in Calcutta, and had even shopped in the same local stores. Boudi began to look forward to his visits and would even change clothes, brush her hair, and make extra special meals. Often Pranab Kaku would take Usha and Boudi for rides and they would pack a picnic. They formed an emotional bond in which Boudi had never shared with another man before. These outings would be deemed inappropriate had Usha not been with, but it is clear that Boudi was in love with Pranab Kaku. Usha claims, â€Å"He wooed her as no other man had.. needing her†¦in a way my father never did. † (P. 642). Although Boudi never proclaims her love for Pranab Kaku until the end of the story, her love is evident when she has jealous tendencies when he starts bringing another woman around. Pranab Kaku starts bringing an American woman around and Boudi is very judgmental about her. She always insisted that the relationship was never going to last. She tells Usha, â€Å"In a few weeks, the fun will be over and she’ll leave him,† (P. 642). Boudi is very traditional in her Bengali ways, so while she knows she will never be with Pranab Kaku, she doesn’t want him ‘screwing’ up his life with an American woman. She would rather see him with a proper Bengali woman. Pranab seeks approval for his girlfriend, but Boudi does not voice her opinion, except to her friends right before the two of them get married, â€Å"She will leave him†¦He is throwing his life away† (P. 645). Pranab Kaku slowly drifts away after staring his own family. Boudi and her family get the occasional update until Debra (Pranab Kaku’s wife) calls and tells Boudi of a divorce, and Pranab Kaku’s unfaithful tendencies. It was then that Boudi has a realization of the love that her and her husband share. They had grown old together and when their house emptied and it was left to the two of them, their fondness of each other improved. They took care of each other when they were sick and had a mutual respect for each other. Boudi never had to worry about being taken care of or her family breaking up. She had eventually come to peace with broken heart after Pranab Kaku got married and found a new kind of love in her own marriage.

Iterature comprehension Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Iterature comprehension - Essay Example Robert Lee Frost’s The Road Not Taken is a poem about the contemplation of two different possible outcomes of travel down two divergent roads in the woods. When the traveler is first viewing his choices, he notices that the road down the first path is clear to see: â€Å" And be one traveler, long I stood, And looked down one as far as I could, To where it bent in the undergrowth;† The other path, the one our traveler chooses, â€Å"Because it was grassy and wanted wear† it turns out may not be as different because â€Å"the passing there, Had worn them really about the same†. The contemplation of the two paths, on a literal level, has to do with what the traveler can see and not see on down the road from the vantage point at the beginning of the journey. One path is widely tread and clearly seen. The other one that is unseen, unclear and unknown is the one the traveler chooses. But it is also with this choice that the traveler knows he is ultimately forsa ken the other. After all, as he says, â€Å"Yet knowing how way leads on to way, I doubted if I should ever come back.† ultimately face when we choose one course in life over another. The poet is telling us about the power of free will, that we no longer live under the age of determinism and pastoral control thus we are free to take our own path in life, which in The Road Not Taken, is the one that others have not. I don’t think that Frost is advocating a specific position in this poem. I just think that he is just showing vs. telling the reader that we exist in a time where we have the power to choose one course in life over another. Thus the lesser traveled path is not always the better path, it is simply the one that is lesser known. The path that has fewer unforeseen consequences at the outset is not greater or lesser, it is simply unknown. I think another misconception that is easy to make about the poem is that the poet is sad or full over regret over the path not taken. â€Å"I shall

Cognitive Development In Early Childhood Education Research Paper

Cognitive Development In Early Childhood Education - Research Paper Example This paper declares that cognition of every child tends to be different from another. This means that the level at what one child tends to perceive will be quite different from another child having the same age and circumstances. This merely means that the capability of each individual is different from another. Therefore comparing cognition f one child to another is practically useless as that would only undermine confidence. The only way to overcome this problem is that one needs to critically evaluate the child's way of learning, capabilities and social interaction and then device a way to deal and nurture the cognition in accordance with the child's pace of development. This essay makes a conclusion that cognition is an essential feature of a child's development. It gives a child the capability to understand the world that surrounds him, develop his perception about various things and finally build up his stance on the things. Cognition is a major area of concern which at times is neglected especially when it comes to the lower class as they usually do not spend much time and the required attention on the cognition of their child in the early years which causes them to suffer eventually. Cognitive development in early years of education is also essential because during early childhood a child is developing various concepts which he implements and executes throughout his life if at this point his concepts are clear and has a targeted sort of thinking therefore then many problems can be countered which a child having weak cognition might suffer from.

Is democracy making gains in Asia C.Q. Researcher, July 24, 1998, vol Research Paper

Is democracy making gains in Asia C.Q. Researcher, July 24, 1998, vol. 8, issue 27 - Research Paper Example Economic liberalization has caused setback to democratization 2. Corruption and poverty cause hindrance to growth of democracy 3. Negative impact of war on terrorism affect democratization 4. Instability in the democratic infrastructure prevent stable democracies 5. Tradition-bound societies resist change 6. Expectations focused on â€Å"Asian values† did not materialize in a big way There is a widespread belief in the West that Asia is a region where democracy has not yet taken roots. But the truth is that the Asian countries have given the world the best ideas and values, which have helped democracy progress world over. Democracy, though in its primitive form had been a familiar notion with Asians because the ethical values that the religions of Asia (Budhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam) proclaim, have been almost the same as democracy (1). The democratic implication of the cultural diversity of Asian countries is some thing that the West finds difficult to understand. Wi th so many cultures and languages integrated as one nation, almost every country in this region is a great model of cultural pluralism (2). The colonization of the Asian subcontinent by the British Empire had its pros and cons for the nations of Asia, in terms of democracy (3). Colonization opened up new channels, which were to bring in, new ideas of equality and democratic governance from Western renaissance to Asia (4). All the same, the colonization process destroyed the inherent social fabric of these countries that had a different kind of cultural tolerance and coexistence built into it (5). And this was the tragedy that occurred for the democracy in Asia. But changes are visible. It is through an evolving synthesis of economic progress, community oriented development and the strengthening human rights movement in Asia that democracy is making gains in this region. Literally, the meaning of the word, democracy, is â€Å"people rule† (6). And the primary definition of dem ocracy can be, â€Å"a freely elected government† (7). As Mosley has suggested, the problem that democracy always will have to face and tackle is, the fact that, â€Å" ‘people’ will have many different interests, all clamouring to be heard and acted upon† (8). In Asia, as said above, the cultural diversity is greater than any other region and hence the clamoring at its peak. But there can also be a second definition for democracy, which says that democracy is a â€Å"government by a simple majority† (9). While refuting the arguments of Samuel Huntington regarding the clashes of civilizations, Schmiegelow has pointed out the role of the rising middle class in the democratization process in Asian countries (10). Quoting Henry Rowen, Schmiegelow has also introduced another approach towards the same subject, which says that the economic growth in these countries has contributed to the democratization process (11). The problem with these two approaches has also been described by Schmiegelow by citing two contrasting examples- the case of Singapore which is very rich but not accepted as a liberal democracy by the world and the case of Burma which is very poor but inherits a very strong democratic movement (12). All these discussion throw light upon the amazing diversity of Asian democratic experience, which can be understood from the following words of Brian Bridges and Lok-Sang Ho: When we view the Asian scene, we can see a vast range of democratic polities, from the huge but

Barriers to Dutch Infrastructural Project Planning

Barriers to Dutch Infrastructural Project Planning Interactive planning of Dutch infrastructural project A case-description of Mainport Schiphol and the A12 national expressway Interactive Planning of Sustainability 1. Introduction Since the beginning of the ‘90s, the implementation of new infrastructural projects in The Netherlands became increasingly problematic. Related environmental issues had a lot of societal attention. The Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, responsible for maintaining a high quality of mobility in the Netherlands, identified three major problems with earlier attempts to solve the infrastructural problems; little social acceptance for new projects, procedures for realizing new projects took too long, and the proposed solutions were not really original and often ‘more of the same’. For solving these problems, this Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management proposed a change from top-down decision making to a more open and interactive form of policy making for planning, developing, and implementing new infrastructure (Enthoven and de Rooij, 1996). With interactive policy making, the main goal is to make more creative and effectiv e plans, by involving all stakeholders like citizens, (local and/or national) governments and experts. For this paper, 2 cases are selected, related to a Dutch infrastructure issue and dealt with on an interactive way; Mainport Schiphol near Amsterdam and the A12 national expressway near The Hague. The first one is selected because of its elaborated description in Susskind et al. (1999), its high degree of complexness and the fact the outcomes were fairly positive, the second one is selected also because of its suitable description in Glasbergen en Driessen (2005), but with a more straight-forward problem definition and its positive outcomes. Discussing these two Dutch cases, we will focus on four critical issues, related to interactive planning and often discussed in literature: Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge. Although more critical issues can be defined, like Roles op participants, Modes of evaluation and Use of outcomes by policy makers, only these four are chosen because of the fact that these are clearly discussed in the selec ted case-descriptions and these seemed to be crucial for the success of these cases. Chapter 2 will discuss each critical issue shortly. Chapter 3 will discuss the two cases in the light of the four different critical issues, and chapter 4 will give a conclusion. To structure this research the following research question is formulated: How do the four critical issues (Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge) contribute to the rate of success of 2 infrastructural cases in The Netherlands (the Schiphol case and the A12 national expressway)? 2. Critical Issues This chapter will elaborate a bit more about what is actually meant with the four different critical issues: Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge. 2.1 Participant selection The question of which parties to involve is answered by a set of four considerations that should be taken into account when selecting the participants (De Bruijn et al., 2002). Firstly, parties with blocking power in the decision-making are important. Involving these parties in the process may keep them from using their blocking power in ways that are unforeseen. Secondly, parties with productive power should be part of the process. These parties will actually have to implement the decisions that are taken, and can influence the decision making with their control over the productive resources. Thirdly, parties that have an interest in the decision-making should be considered. These are parties that do not have substantial power in the decision making process (like blocking power or resources), but nevertheless are confronted with the outcomes of the group process and therefore can provide important information and moral considerations. Finally, this moral aspect of decision-making ca n by a reason to invite certain parties to join the process. Moral and ethical considerations can be important to embody the voice of those who are affected by the potential decision, but are not invited to the process for different reasons (De Bruin, 2002). 2.2 Power and access One of the key goals of interactive policy making is that it should reduce the influence of dominant elites and enable the less powerful groups to give input. Those parties or actors, who do not have access to formal decision-making processes or who cannot exert enough influence by the way of discussion and negotiation are more likely to initiate legal proceedings. Public’s ability to participate in decisions can be assessed according to three elements (as defined at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992): access to information, access to the decision-making process, and access to redress or change decision. These three elements will shortly be explained below. ‘Access to information’ can be seen as the first foundation of access and also one of the most passive forms of access seen from the perspective of the public. With access to information is meant the ability the public has to easily get access to forms of relevant information in which they are directly or indirectly involved, such as environmental impact assessments, reports from industries about their emissions etc. But one also can think about getting informed about potential relevant activities, which possibly can affect the public’s environment. ‘Access to the decision-making processes’ wants to give the public a more active role. Once this form of access is attained, one can even speak of a certain form of power. One must not focus on only the opportunity to provide input on specific subjects, but also the ability to influence more general decisions, such as the making of new laws or national policies. ‘Access to redress or change a certain decision’ is also related to a form of power, since the ability to change a certain decision gives a citizen the power to influence the decision-making process. This form of access can be translated into making judicial or administrative remedies accessible to the public, when officials fail to do their work in a proper manner (Mock et al., 2003). 2.3 Roles of facilitators The roles that a facilitator can play in group decision processes constitute of consistent packages of specific tasks within the group process combined with a more general ‘attitude’ towards the group members and the process. In literature, three major roles of a facilitator are commonly distinguished: a role as process architect or process manager, a mediating role and a convening role. As a process architect, the facilitator lays down the backbone of the group process. The process should be structured in such a way that all relevant insights from the participants will play a role in the process. Four core principles for designing a group process can be discriminated: openness, protection of core values, speed and substance (De Bruijn et al., 2002). These four ‘core elements of process design’ should be included and safeguarded in any process design in order to satisfy all the participants. The facilitator focuses on the process so that group members can focus on the substance and can suggest different ways of discussing problems, ensuring that all group members can freely express there comments and are free of any abuses of power or personal attack (Susskind et al., 1999). Especially in environmental issues, the interests, values and problem perceptions of different parties may often be far apart form each other. With such large contrasts of interest within the group, a facilitator often is faced with disputes and conflicts within the group process, that are hard to solve with mere changes in the structure of the process. In such case, the role of the facilitator can be very closely related with a mediating role in which the facilitator is mediating between parties, even to establish a general structure of the process. In addition, an external mediator can be asked to solve the conflicts. An external mediator is a neutral person that specializes in solving disputes between different participants in the group process, often using a variety of negotiation techniques and (psychological) methods of reframing problems and solutions (Acland, 1995). In a convening role, the facilitator has a say in which parties should be involved in the group process, and at what roles they will have. The convening role of a facilitator is sometimes not far apart from the role that a facilitator has as a process designer. Proper management of a group decisions process clearly has a very import influence on the effectiveness of that process. The facilitator can influence that process to quit a large extent. The consensus of all group members on the final decision depends for a large part on the level of agreement within the group with the approach that facilitators takes in structuring and managing the process. 2.4 Role of knowledge Knowledge is a crucial ingredient of interactive planning. However, the significance of the use of knowledge depends on one’s view. Over the years, the view on the role of knowledge has changed. The rational actor model has gradually been replaced by adaptive decision and learning strategies interacting with the environment. Before, planning would be perceived as proceeding in an orderly and linear fashion (Friend Hickling, 2005). Today some authors state that knowledge is a result of collective social processes. This implies that knowledge is a social construct, rather than an objective entity. In the new approach, linear progression of the process is seen as unrealistic. Instead, the uniqueness, ambiguity and unpredictability of real world processes are emphasized. With the recognition that planning is an interactive and communicative process, the notion of the interrelationship between expert and experiential knowledge has become more and more crucial. Interactive planning is now seen as ‘organized rituals’ where ‘deliberating participants’ listen to one another, search for new options and learn to find new ways of going on together (Khakee et al., 2000). 3. Case description For a complete description of each of the two cases, see appendix 1 and 2. This section will only discuss the previously mentioned four critical issues related to interactive policy making (Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge), related to the experiences of these two cases. 3.1 Mainport Schiphol Schiphol Airport is situated in a highly urbanized area, and deals with national, continental and intercontinental air traffic. Although its presence is causing many ‘stress’ on its environmental surroundings, the Dutch government wants it to expand, so it can act as a hub for continental and intercontinental air traffic. With this expansion there are two interests at stake: on national level an economic one (because an enlarged Schiphol would increase economic activities), and on regional level an environmental one (because a bigger Schiphol will cause an increase of nuisances of noise, pollution, and safety). These two opposite interests caused a stalemate to occur since the 1950s. In the 1980s, one of the government authorities took the initiative to change the ‘common way of working’ and activated the policy network, to address the issues (Driessen, 1999). 3.1.1 Participant selection The most important actor in this case was the Dutch Government, who made the prefigured decision to expand the airport into an international hub. All other participants had to find their ‘win-win’ outcomes within this context of developmental growth. From the beginning, various government organisations have been involved in the development of Schiphol Airport. The main players are three ministries. The ministry of Transport and Public Works is by far the most important actor, responsible for the economic development of the airport as well as the abatement of noise nuisance. Second, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment is also involved, responsible for physical planning in The Netherlands and implementing policies regarding the rest of the environmental effects of the activities of the airline industries, namely air pollution, stench and hazard. Finally, the Ministry of Economic Affairs plays and important role, pursuing further economic development in the region of Schiphol (Driessen, 1999). Lower tiers of governments involved were the province of North Holland, responsible for environmental policy and planning for the region, and the municipalities surrounding the airport, both benefiting (by increased employment and tax-incomes) and enduring the aggravation (caused by noise, stench, air pollution, and other activities that degrade the environment) of having the airport close by. The municipality of Haarlemmermeer is a special case, because this municipality is authorized to create a land use plan for the airfield. Additionally, two enterprises play a crucial role: NV Luchthaven Schiphol (operating the airport and completely state owned) and KLM (the major Dutch carrier and partly owned by the state) (Driessen, 1999). Because the Ministry of Transport and Public Works occupied a pivotal position, being both responsible for the economic development of Schiphol and the abatement of noise nuisance, it was agreed that noise regulation would be regulated by the Aviation Act, which was under the responsibility of the Ministry of Transport and Public Works. Nevertheless, little actions were made to reduce noise nuisance, because all participants believed that technical solutions would solve all noise-problems in the near future. Because no agreement could be made between these participants on how much the airport should be allowed to grow, or how to tackle the environmental problems, the Dutch government asked the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment to make an integral plan for the Schiphol region, ensuring both economic development as well as environmental improvements. In the following process, a project group and a steering committee were established. The steering committee was comp osed out of all above-mentioned parties, while the project group contained all interest groups. Any party with interest in the case could join the project group (Driessen, 1999). Based on the case-description and related to the four considerations described in section 2.1, it must be concluded that parties with blocking and productive power were strongly involved in the interactive planning process, by joining the steering committee. Other parties with interest were also involved, by joining the project group, but their influence was relatively small. If parties were involved, based on moral considerations, does not become clear from this case-description. 3.1.2 Power and access The three different Governmental agencies (the ministry of Transport and Public Works, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment, and the Ministry of Economic Affairs) with jurisdictional authority over airport expansion, had accepted the mandate for airport expansion, but each with more at stake than achieving this outcome. Interagency rivalry and power played a critical part in the positions the ministries adopted and the coalitions they build during negotiations. The creation of a project group composed of all interest groups and of a steering committee of essential power brokers gave much power to the steering committee alone. From the case description, it does not become clear that the members of the steering committee, who were eventually excluded from the decision-making, were those who could not benefit in a ‘win-win’ situation, or were simply not powerful enough to block or advance progress. Nevertheless, the exclusion of interests cannot lead t o a ‘win-win’ solution and has encountered difficulties building consensus and achieving compliance (Driessen, 1999). Based on the case-description and related to the three elements described in section 2.2, it must be concluded that ‘Access to information’ does not form an obstacle. Perhaps the overload on information and the opposed and contradicting information gave bigger problems. The public was given some access to the decision-making process when they joint the project group, by commenting the ideas of the steering committee. However, the steering committee made all final decisions, so there was certainly no access to redress or change a decision. 3.1.3 Roles of facilitator After the developed deadlock between the initially participants, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment was made primary responsible for the task of making an integral plan for the Schiphol region, ensuring both economic development as well as environmental improvements. The fact that this ministry had a strong affiliation with environmental issues raised initial suspicion among the other governmental bodies. They wondered whether this ministry would be able to take a neutral position in the ensuing discussions. However, their initial wariness soon gave way to a realistic attitude, and actively joined the process (Driessen, 1999). The Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment designed an organizational framework for the discussion whereby the coordinated approach would be given a concrete form by activating the policy network. With this, the ministry acquired a dual function in the project, because it was the convenor, chair and facilitator of the planning process, and had to secure the input of environmental interest in the decision-making (Driessen, 1999). In the initial stage, the strategy of the project leaders of the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment was to bring the various parties closer together by conducting investigations and exchanging information, assuming that this might contribute to a better understanding and more appreciation for each different standpoint. The was no need for a professional facilitator, because all information was being collected, analyzed, and disseminated in an orderly way, although a professional facilitator could have helped structuring the problem. At the end of this stage, the project leaders formulated a plan, which could not be released because of the rain of criticism it caused (Driessen, 1999). Because of this setback, the project leaders decided to recruit a professional facilitator, with the task not to increase the supply of information, but to let parties sought to digest what they had and to arrive at a decision. From the case-description, it does not become clear if this facilitator had staff support and whether he/she had analytical, problem solving skills. The approach taken by the facilitator was aimed at bringing the main bottlenecks to the fore, in order to reach agreements at least on key points. The approach was characterized by the creation of a strong interaction between the project group and the steering committee. The later reviewed the issues that the project group had pared down in size, and either approved the solutions offered by the project group or send them back to the project group for reconsideration (Driessen, 1999). After this process, the facilitator presented the choices made by the project group and the steering committee to the public. The central aim of this was, to gain social and political legitimacy; the plan was opened up to the public discussion and the reactions were taken into account in the final version. Unfortunately, the public was hardly informed about the process preceding the plan and therefore it was generally received with great suspicion. Adding to this, the public discussion did not proceeded in a coordinated fashion, but each government resorted to its own method of public discussion. At the same time of these public hearings, the facilitator had to focus on the steering committee, because each party could take criticism of the plan as a lever to reopen discussion on subjects already discussed. At the end, the facilitator wrote the final text of the plan, shaping the final agreements also including the difficult topics of a reduction of noise nuisance and hazard (Driessen , 1999). From this description of the facilitator, it becomes clear that the facilitator had both the role of process architect, and mediator. The facilitator designed the entire framework of decision-making and mediated when problems occurred. If the facilitator also had a convening role is unclear. Which stakeholders could join the steering committee was already decided before the facilitator got involved. How actually the project group was formed, stays unclear from this case-description. 3.1.4 Role of knowledge Especially in issues related to airfield, experts disagree on numerous crucial uncertainties. This makes the role of knowledge both important but not of the same tenor. Research plays a key role in these controversies. This relates to research on, for instance, the need to build a new airport or expand the existing one, it may concern the most desirable infrastructure in and around the airport, it may deal with the profitability of operation, it may investigate the economic impact of the airport, or it may consider possible negative effects on the environment. However, this research must never be judged as ‘objective’ and will always play a role in the conflict of interest, expressed in this case, in the frequency of requested ‘second opinions’ (Driessen, 1999). In the case of noise nuisance, it took long time to be acknowledged as a problem and to find a way of calculating the level of distress. In the mid-1960s, a system was developed to measure noise nuisance, but no agreement could be made on how it should be applied. For instance, there was discussion about how to determine the threshold value for maximum admissible noise nuisance. Furthermore, options differ on setting a specific norm for night flights. The disagreement revolves around the degree to which departing and arriving airplanes disturb the sleep of nearby residents, and whether such disruption is detrimental to public health. There was also uncertainty about, the rate air traffic would increase, and the degree to which technical developments in aeronautics could help reduce noise levels by changing the aircrafts design (Driessen, 1999). Therefore, as also stated in section 2.4, knowledge is very important in decision-making processes, but as these processes get more interaction with a broad scale of actors, knowledge becomes more a result of collective social processes and loses its objective entity. From this case-description, it does not become explicitly clear if the decisions were based on knowledge provided by ‘experts’ or that it was formed in an interactive learning process. Implicitly, one could state that the agreement on noise nuisances could only have been established, when such interactive knowledge development occurred. 3.2 A12 national expressway The ease of accessibility of The Hague depends to a large extent on the A12 national expressway. Its final 30 km stretch is marked by many access and exit ramps, and the intensity of traffic in this area has increased dramatically in recent decades. This is partly thanks to the enormous increase in the volume of vehicular traffic, and partly to the proliferation of new urban development locations around The Hague. Much of the traffic is ‘destination traffic’ which enters the city in the morning and leaves at night. As a result of the higher volumes, congestion became a big problem (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). 3.2.1 Participant selection The planning agency initially saw itself as the owner of the problem at stake and formulated a classical solution of road widening. This approach failed because of public resistance and of a budget problem at the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Because of this, the ministry stepped back, which un-deliberately created opportunities for other parties to take initiative. The government authorities of The Hague took the initiative to develop a new architecture for interaction among the different stakeholders. They organized a public dialog and a series of workshops involving local politicians and private businesses from the region, resulting in a new definition of the problem, focussing on the underutilization of existing capacity. The role of the planning agency changed from orchestrator of the infrastructure project to a partner in the wider regional consultation on issues of mobility and livability. They also made subsidies available to the business community , enabling them to work out individual, sometimes innovative, mobility plans (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). Before concluding the analysis of participant selection in this case, the fact that there were no objections to the planes made by this interactive planning-process is probably the best evidence that all relevant stakeholders were included in the process. Nevertheless, from the case-description and related to the four considerations described in section 2.1, it does not become clear how all relevant stakeholders were defined, if all parties with blocking and productive power were added to the process, or if parties with moral and ethical considerations were included. 3.2.2 Power and access This case can bee described as a restricted interactive process, because it was intended to promote the cooperation of public authorities with the private sector. Civic organizations and individual citizens were kept informed through a public relations center. The governmental authorities of The Hague decided which stakeholders were included in the process. Despite this fact, no opposition to this project did arise (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). The access to information was well looked after, in the form of the public relations center. They kept civic organizations and individual citizens informed about the plans and progress. More power was not given to the public in this case. 3.2.3 Roles of facilitator In order to link the government agencies (where the plans were developed), and the business community, a ‘godfather’ was appointed. This honour was given to the director of the public transport company in the region, and he served as a contact between the project and the private sector. He kept all relevant firms informed about the development of the project and called these firms to task with respect to their responsibilities for the region’s accessibility, by reminding them that they might be lagging behind other firms in the development of their mobility plans (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). From the case-description, it must be concluded that the government authorities of The Hague acted as a convener, initially selecting the different stakeholders. Facilitating the process and mediating in conflicts were partly done by the ‘godfather’ and partly by the government authorities of The Hague. The precise division of responsibilities does not become clear from the case-description. 3.2.4 Role of knowledge According to this case-description, it was the government agencies of The Hague who decided what knowledge was used in the decision process. The only organization consulted for information was the planning agency, also participating in the planning process (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). Although knowledge is crucial in interactive planning (see section 2.4), the role of knowledge in this case is not very big. This probably has two reasons. One is the relative simple problem at stake (congestion) and secondly the fact that all parties agreed on the content of the relevant knowledge. Nevertheless, the fact that only one party provided the relevant knowledge could potentially have caused major problems afterwards. 4. Conclusion This research started with the question: How do the four critical issues (Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge) contribute to the rate of success of 2 infrastructural cases in The Netherlands (the Schiphol case and the A12 national expressway)? How each criterion added to the success of the case is described at the end of each subsection in chapter 3. Overall, it can be concluded that the success of interactive planning depends on the care each criterion is taken care of. If one of these criteria is neglected, it will be reflected in the outcomes. If, for example, participants are forgotten, power is not distributed evenly, facilitators are not adequate, or knowledge is not as objective as possible, the process will take much longer time and the change of good end-results and thus consensus will diminish. Both cases make clear that solutions were impossible to reach in the traditional way of policy making and that interactive policy mak ing contributed to good end results. Nevertheless, in future comparable processes, more attention should be given to the four discussed critical issues, and probably to the seven mentioned in the introduction. Only than, the rate of success of these kind of processes will increase. References Acland, A.F. 1995. Resolving Disputes without going to Court. London, Century Business Books. Bruijn, H. de, E. ten Heuvelhof and R.J. in ’t Veld. 2002. Process management: Why Project Management Fails in Complex decision making Processes. Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Driessen, P. 1999. Activating a Policy Network; The Case of Mainport Schiphol. in Susskind et al., 1999, The Consensus Building Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Reaching Agreement. Enthoven, G.M.W. and A. de Rooij. 1996. InfraLab; Impuls voor open planvorming en creativiteit.Bestuurskunde, Vol. 5, Issue 8, p. 1-8. Friend, J. and A. Hickling. 2004. Planning Under Pressure, The Strategic Choice Approach. Oxford, Buttorworth/Heinemann. Glasbergen, P. and P.J. Driessen. 2005. Interactive planning of infrastructure: the changing role of Dutch project management. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, Vol. 23, p. 263-277. Khakee A., A. Barbanente and D. Borri. 2000. Expert and experimental knowledge in planning. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 51, No. 7, p. 776-788. Mock, G.A., W. Vanasselt, and E. Petkova. 2003. Rights and reality: Monitoring the public’s right to participate. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, Vol. 9, p. 4-13. Suzzkind, L.S., S. McKearan and J. Thomas-Larmer. 1999. The Consensus Building Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Reaching Agreement. London, SAGE Publications. Appendix 1 – Case sheet Mainport Schiphol (Driessen, 1999) 1. Position Initiative: several governmental ministries Time period: 1980-present Level of used policy process: regional/national Phase in policy process: in process 2. Background This case is about plans to expand Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport and the disputes related to it. Schiphol Airport is situated in a highly urbanized area, and deals with national, continental and intercontinental air traffic. Although its presence is causing many ‘stress’ on its environmental surroundings, the Dutch government wants it to expand, so it can act as a hub for continental and intercontinental air traffic. With this expansion there are two interests at stake: on national level an economic one (because an enlarged Schiphol Airport would increase economic activities), and on regional level an environmental one (because a bigger Schiphol Airport will caus Barriers to Dutch Infrastructural Project Planning Barriers to Dutch Infrastructural Project Planning Interactive planning of Dutch infrastructural project A case-description of Mainport Schiphol and the A12 national expressway Interactive Planning of Sustainability 1. Introduction Since the beginning of the ‘90s, the implementation of new infrastructural projects in The Netherlands became increasingly problematic. Related environmental issues had a lot of societal attention. The Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, responsible for maintaining a high quality of mobility in the Netherlands, identified three major problems with earlier attempts to solve the infrastructural problems; little social acceptance for new projects, procedures for realizing new projects took too long, and the proposed solutions were not really original and often ‘more of the same’. For solving these problems, this Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management proposed a change from top-down decision making to a more open and interactive form of policy making for planning, developing, and implementing new infrastructure (Enthoven and de Rooij, 1996). With interactive policy making, the main goal is to make more creative and effectiv e plans, by involving all stakeholders like citizens, (local and/or national) governments and experts. For this paper, 2 cases are selected, related to a Dutch infrastructure issue and dealt with on an interactive way; Mainport Schiphol near Amsterdam and the A12 national expressway near The Hague. The first one is selected because of its elaborated description in Susskind et al. (1999), its high degree of complexness and the fact the outcomes were fairly positive, the second one is selected also because of its suitable description in Glasbergen en Driessen (2005), but with a more straight-forward problem definition and its positive outcomes. Discussing these two Dutch cases, we will focus on four critical issues, related to interactive planning and often discussed in literature: Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge. Although more critical issues can be defined, like Roles op participants, Modes of evaluation and Use of outcomes by policy makers, only these four are chosen because of the fact that these are clearly discussed in the selec ted case-descriptions and these seemed to be crucial for the success of these cases. Chapter 2 will discuss each critical issue shortly. Chapter 3 will discuss the two cases in the light of the four different critical issues, and chapter 4 will give a conclusion. To structure this research the following research question is formulated: How do the four critical issues (Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge) contribute to the rate of success of 2 infrastructural cases in The Netherlands (the Schiphol case and the A12 national expressway)? 2. Critical Issues This chapter will elaborate a bit more about what is actually meant with the four different critical issues: Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge. 2.1 Participant selection The question of which parties to involve is answered by a set of four considerations that should be taken into account when selecting the participants (De Bruijn et al., 2002). Firstly, parties with blocking power in the decision-making are important. Involving these parties in the process may keep them from using their blocking power in ways that are unforeseen. Secondly, parties with productive power should be part of the process. These parties will actually have to implement the decisions that are taken, and can influence the decision making with their control over the productive resources. Thirdly, parties that have an interest in the decision-making should be considered. These are parties that do not have substantial power in the decision making process (like blocking power or resources), but nevertheless are confronted with the outcomes of the group process and therefore can provide important information and moral considerations. Finally, this moral aspect of decision-making ca n by a reason to invite certain parties to join the process. Moral and ethical considerations can be important to embody the voice of those who are affected by the potential decision, but are not invited to the process for different reasons (De Bruin, 2002). 2.2 Power and access One of the key goals of interactive policy making is that it should reduce the influence of dominant elites and enable the less powerful groups to give input. Those parties or actors, who do not have access to formal decision-making processes or who cannot exert enough influence by the way of discussion and negotiation are more likely to initiate legal proceedings. Public’s ability to participate in decisions can be assessed according to three elements (as defined at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992): access to information, access to the decision-making process, and access to redress or change decision. These three elements will shortly be explained below. ‘Access to information’ can be seen as the first foundation of access and also one of the most passive forms of access seen from the perspective of the public. With access to information is meant the ability the public has to easily get access to forms of relevant information in which they are directly or indirectly involved, such as environmental impact assessments, reports from industries about their emissions etc. But one also can think about getting informed about potential relevant activities, which possibly can affect the public’s environment. ‘Access to the decision-making processes’ wants to give the public a more active role. Once this form of access is attained, one can even speak of a certain form of power. One must not focus on only the opportunity to provide input on specific subjects, but also the ability to influence more general decisions, such as the making of new laws or national policies. ‘Access to redress or change a certain decision’ is also related to a form of power, since the ability to change a certain decision gives a citizen the power to influence the decision-making process. This form of access can be translated into making judicial or administrative remedies accessible to the public, when officials fail to do their work in a proper manner (Mock et al., 2003). 2.3 Roles of facilitators The roles that a facilitator can play in group decision processes constitute of consistent packages of specific tasks within the group process combined with a more general ‘attitude’ towards the group members and the process. In literature, three major roles of a facilitator are commonly distinguished: a role as process architect or process manager, a mediating role and a convening role. As a process architect, the facilitator lays down the backbone of the group process. The process should be structured in such a way that all relevant insights from the participants will play a role in the process. Four core principles for designing a group process can be discriminated: openness, protection of core values, speed and substance (De Bruijn et al., 2002). These four ‘core elements of process design’ should be included and safeguarded in any process design in order to satisfy all the participants. The facilitator focuses on the process so that group members can focus on the substance and can suggest different ways of discussing problems, ensuring that all group members can freely express there comments and are free of any abuses of power or personal attack (Susskind et al., 1999). Especially in environmental issues, the interests, values and problem perceptions of different parties may often be far apart form each other. With such large contrasts of interest within the group, a facilitator often is faced with disputes and conflicts within the group process, that are hard to solve with mere changes in the structure of the process. In such case, the role of the facilitator can be very closely related with a mediating role in which the facilitator is mediating between parties, even to establish a general structure of the process. In addition, an external mediator can be asked to solve the conflicts. An external mediator is a neutral person that specializes in solving disputes between different participants in the group process, often using a variety of negotiation techniques and (psychological) methods of reframing problems and solutions (Acland, 1995). In a convening role, the facilitator has a say in which parties should be involved in the group process, and at what roles they will have. The convening role of a facilitator is sometimes not far apart from the role that a facilitator has as a process designer. Proper management of a group decisions process clearly has a very import influence on the effectiveness of that process. The facilitator can influence that process to quit a large extent. The consensus of all group members on the final decision depends for a large part on the level of agreement within the group with the approach that facilitators takes in structuring and managing the process. 2.4 Role of knowledge Knowledge is a crucial ingredient of interactive planning. However, the significance of the use of knowledge depends on one’s view. Over the years, the view on the role of knowledge has changed. The rational actor model has gradually been replaced by adaptive decision and learning strategies interacting with the environment. Before, planning would be perceived as proceeding in an orderly and linear fashion (Friend Hickling, 2005). Today some authors state that knowledge is a result of collective social processes. This implies that knowledge is a social construct, rather than an objective entity. In the new approach, linear progression of the process is seen as unrealistic. Instead, the uniqueness, ambiguity and unpredictability of real world processes are emphasized. With the recognition that planning is an interactive and communicative process, the notion of the interrelationship between expert and experiential knowledge has become more and more crucial. Interactive planning is now seen as ‘organized rituals’ where ‘deliberating participants’ listen to one another, search for new options and learn to find new ways of going on together (Khakee et al., 2000). 3. Case description For a complete description of each of the two cases, see appendix 1 and 2. This section will only discuss the previously mentioned four critical issues related to interactive policy making (Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge), related to the experiences of these two cases. 3.1 Mainport Schiphol Schiphol Airport is situated in a highly urbanized area, and deals with national, continental and intercontinental air traffic. Although its presence is causing many ‘stress’ on its environmental surroundings, the Dutch government wants it to expand, so it can act as a hub for continental and intercontinental air traffic. With this expansion there are two interests at stake: on national level an economic one (because an enlarged Schiphol would increase economic activities), and on regional level an environmental one (because a bigger Schiphol will cause an increase of nuisances of noise, pollution, and safety). These two opposite interests caused a stalemate to occur since the 1950s. In the 1980s, one of the government authorities took the initiative to change the ‘common way of working’ and activated the policy network, to address the issues (Driessen, 1999). 3.1.1 Participant selection The most important actor in this case was the Dutch Government, who made the prefigured decision to expand the airport into an international hub. All other participants had to find their ‘win-win’ outcomes within this context of developmental growth. From the beginning, various government organisations have been involved in the development of Schiphol Airport. The main players are three ministries. The ministry of Transport and Public Works is by far the most important actor, responsible for the economic development of the airport as well as the abatement of noise nuisance. Second, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment is also involved, responsible for physical planning in The Netherlands and implementing policies regarding the rest of the environmental effects of the activities of the airline industries, namely air pollution, stench and hazard. Finally, the Ministry of Economic Affairs plays and important role, pursuing further economic development in the region of Schiphol (Driessen, 1999). Lower tiers of governments involved were the province of North Holland, responsible for environmental policy and planning for the region, and the municipalities surrounding the airport, both benefiting (by increased employment and tax-incomes) and enduring the aggravation (caused by noise, stench, air pollution, and other activities that degrade the environment) of having the airport close by. The municipality of Haarlemmermeer is a special case, because this municipality is authorized to create a land use plan for the airfield. Additionally, two enterprises play a crucial role: NV Luchthaven Schiphol (operating the airport and completely state owned) and KLM (the major Dutch carrier and partly owned by the state) (Driessen, 1999). Because the Ministry of Transport and Public Works occupied a pivotal position, being both responsible for the economic development of Schiphol and the abatement of noise nuisance, it was agreed that noise regulation would be regulated by the Aviation Act, which was under the responsibility of the Ministry of Transport and Public Works. Nevertheless, little actions were made to reduce noise nuisance, because all participants believed that technical solutions would solve all noise-problems in the near future. Because no agreement could be made between these participants on how much the airport should be allowed to grow, or how to tackle the environmental problems, the Dutch government asked the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment to make an integral plan for the Schiphol region, ensuring both economic development as well as environmental improvements. In the following process, a project group and a steering committee were established. The steering committee was comp osed out of all above-mentioned parties, while the project group contained all interest groups. Any party with interest in the case could join the project group (Driessen, 1999). Based on the case-description and related to the four considerations described in section 2.1, it must be concluded that parties with blocking and productive power were strongly involved in the interactive planning process, by joining the steering committee. Other parties with interest were also involved, by joining the project group, but their influence was relatively small. If parties were involved, based on moral considerations, does not become clear from this case-description. 3.1.2 Power and access The three different Governmental agencies (the ministry of Transport and Public Works, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment, and the Ministry of Economic Affairs) with jurisdictional authority over airport expansion, had accepted the mandate for airport expansion, but each with more at stake than achieving this outcome. Interagency rivalry and power played a critical part in the positions the ministries adopted and the coalitions they build during negotiations. The creation of a project group composed of all interest groups and of a steering committee of essential power brokers gave much power to the steering committee alone. From the case description, it does not become clear that the members of the steering committee, who were eventually excluded from the decision-making, were those who could not benefit in a ‘win-win’ situation, or were simply not powerful enough to block or advance progress. Nevertheless, the exclusion of interests cannot lead t o a ‘win-win’ solution and has encountered difficulties building consensus and achieving compliance (Driessen, 1999). Based on the case-description and related to the three elements described in section 2.2, it must be concluded that ‘Access to information’ does not form an obstacle. Perhaps the overload on information and the opposed and contradicting information gave bigger problems. The public was given some access to the decision-making process when they joint the project group, by commenting the ideas of the steering committee. However, the steering committee made all final decisions, so there was certainly no access to redress or change a decision. 3.1.3 Roles of facilitator After the developed deadlock between the initially participants, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment was made primary responsible for the task of making an integral plan for the Schiphol region, ensuring both economic development as well as environmental improvements. The fact that this ministry had a strong affiliation with environmental issues raised initial suspicion among the other governmental bodies. They wondered whether this ministry would be able to take a neutral position in the ensuing discussions. However, their initial wariness soon gave way to a realistic attitude, and actively joined the process (Driessen, 1999). The Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment designed an organizational framework for the discussion whereby the coordinated approach would be given a concrete form by activating the policy network. With this, the ministry acquired a dual function in the project, because it was the convenor, chair and facilitator of the planning process, and had to secure the input of environmental interest in the decision-making (Driessen, 1999). In the initial stage, the strategy of the project leaders of the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment was to bring the various parties closer together by conducting investigations and exchanging information, assuming that this might contribute to a better understanding and more appreciation for each different standpoint. The was no need for a professional facilitator, because all information was being collected, analyzed, and disseminated in an orderly way, although a professional facilitator could have helped structuring the problem. At the end of this stage, the project leaders formulated a plan, which could not be released because of the rain of criticism it caused (Driessen, 1999). Because of this setback, the project leaders decided to recruit a professional facilitator, with the task not to increase the supply of information, but to let parties sought to digest what they had and to arrive at a decision. From the case-description, it does not become clear if this facilitator had staff support and whether he/she had analytical, problem solving skills. The approach taken by the facilitator was aimed at bringing the main bottlenecks to the fore, in order to reach agreements at least on key points. The approach was characterized by the creation of a strong interaction between the project group and the steering committee. The later reviewed the issues that the project group had pared down in size, and either approved the solutions offered by the project group or send them back to the project group for reconsideration (Driessen, 1999). After this process, the facilitator presented the choices made by the project group and the steering committee to the public. The central aim of this was, to gain social and political legitimacy; the plan was opened up to the public discussion and the reactions were taken into account in the final version. Unfortunately, the public was hardly informed about the process preceding the plan and therefore it was generally received with great suspicion. Adding to this, the public discussion did not proceeded in a coordinated fashion, but each government resorted to its own method of public discussion. At the same time of these public hearings, the facilitator had to focus on the steering committee, because each party could take criticism of the plan as a lever to reopen discussion on subjects already discussed. At the end, the facilitator wrote the final text of the plan, shaping the final agreements also including the difficult topics of a reduction of noise nuisance and hazard (Driessen , 1999). From this description of the facilitator, it becomes clear that the facilitator had both the role of process architect, and mediator. The facilitator designed the entire framework of decision-making and mediated when problems occurred. If the facilitator also had a convening role is unclear. Which stakeholders could join the steering committee was already decided before the facilitator got involved. How actually the project group was formed, stays unclear from this case-description. 3.1.4 Role of knowledge Especially in issues related to airfield, experts disagree on numerous crucial uncertainties. This makes the role of knowledge both important but not of the same tenor. Research plays a key role in these controversies. This relates to research on, for instance, the need to build a new airport or expand the existing one, it may concern the most desirable infrastructure in and around the airport, it may deal with the profitability of operation, it may investigate the economic impact of the airport, or it may consider possible negative effects on the environment. However, this research must never be judged as ‘objective’ and will always play a role in the conflict of interest, expressed in this case, in the frequency of requested ‘second opinions’ (Driessen, 1999). In the case of noise nuisance, it took long time to be acknowledged as a problem and to find a way of calculating the level of distress. In the mid-1960s, a system was developed to measure noise nuisance, but no agreement could be made on how it should be applied. For instance, there was discussion about how to determine the threshold value for maximum admissible noise nuisance. Furthermore, options differ on setting a specific norm for night flights. The disagreement revolves around the degree to which departing and arriving airplanes disturb the sleep of nearby residents, and whether such disruption is detrimental to public health. There was also uncertainty about, the rate air traffic would increase, and the degree to which technical developments in aeronautics could help reduce noise levels by changing the aircrafts design (Driessen, 1999). Therefore, as also stated in section 2.4, knowledge is very important in decision-making processes, but as these processes get more interaction with a broad scale of actors, knowledge becomes more a result of collective social processes and loses its objective entity. From this case-description, it does not become explicitly clear if the decisions were based on knowledge provided by ‘experts’ or that it was formed in an interactive learning process. Implicitly, one could state that the agreement on noise nuisances could only have been established, when such interactive knowledge development occurred. 3.2 A12 national expressway The ease of accessibility of The Hague depends to a large extent on the A12 national expressway. Its final 30 km stretch is marked by many access and exit ramps, and the intensity of traffic in this area has increased dramatically in recent decades. This is partly thanks to the enormous increase in the volume of vehicular traffic, and partly to the proliferation of new urban development locations around The Hague. Much of the traffic is ‘destination traffic’ which enters the city in the morning and leaves at night. As a result of the higher volumes, congestion became a big problem (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). 3.2.1 Participant selection The planning agency initially saw itself as the owner of the problem at stake and formulated a classical solution of road widening. This approach failed because of public resistance and of a budget problem at the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Because of this, the ministry stepped back, which un-deliberately created opportunities for other parties to take initiative. The government authorities of The Hague took the initiative to develop a new architecture for interaction among the different stakeholders. They organized a public dialog and a series of workshops involving local politicians and private businesses from the region, resulting in a new definition of the problem, focussing on the underutilization of existing capacity. The role of the planning agency changed from orchestrator of the infrastructure project to a partner in the wider regional consultation on issues of mobility and livability. They also made subsidies available to the business community , enabling them to work out individual, sometimes innovative, mobility plans (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). Before concluding the analysis of participant selection in this case, the fact that there were no objections to the planes made by this interactive planning-process is probably the best evidence that all relevant stakeholders were included in the process. Nevertheless, from the case-description and related to the four considerations described in section 2.1, it does not become clear how all relevant stakeholders were defined, if all parties with blocking and productive power were added to the process, or if parties with moral and ethical considerations were included. 3.2.2 Power and access This case can bee described as a restricted interactive process, because it was intended to promote the cooperation of public authorities with the private sector. Civic organizations and individual citizens were kept informed through a public relations center. The governmental authorities of The Hague decided which stakeholders were included in the process. Despite this fact, no opposition to this project did arise (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). The access to information was well looked after, in the form of the public relations center. They kept civic organizations and individual citizens informed about the plans and progress. More power was not given to the public in this case. 3.2.3 Roles of facilitator In order to link the government agencies (where the plans were developed), and the business community, a ‘godfather’ was appointed. This honour was given to the director of the public transport company in the region, and he served as a contact between the project and the private sector. He kept all relevant firms informed about the development of the project and called these firms to task with respect to their responsibilities for the region’s accessibility, by reminding them that they might be lagging behind other firms in the development of their mobility plans (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). From the case-description, it must be concluded that the government authorities of The Hague acted as a convener, initially selecting the different stakeholders. Facilitating the process and mediating in conflicts were partly done by the ‘godfather’ and partly by the government authorities of The Hague. The precise division of responsibilities does not become clear from the case-description. 3.2.4 Role of knowledge According to this case-description, it was the government agencies of The Hague who decided what knowledge was used in the decision process. The only organization consulted for information was the planning agency, also participating in the planning process (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). Although knowledge is crucial in interactive planning (see section 2.4), the role of knowledge in this case is not very big. This probably has two reasons. One is the relative simple problem at stake (congestion) and secondly the fact that all parties agreed on the content of the relevant knowledge. Nevertheless, the fact that only one party provided the relevant knowledge could potentially have caused major problems afterwards. 4. Conclusion This research started with the question: How do the four critical issues (Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge) contribute to the rate of success of 2 infrastructural cases in The Netherlands (the Schiphol case and the A12 national expressway)? How each criterion added to the success of the case is described at the end of each subsection in chapter 3. Overall, it can be concluded that the success of interactive planning depends on the care each criterion is taken care of. If one of these criteria is neglected, it will be reflected in the outcomes. If, for example, participants are forgotten, power is not distributed evenly, facilitators are not adequate, or knowledge is not as objective as possible, the process will take much longer time and the change of good end-results and thus consensus will diminish. Both cases make clear that solutions were impossible to reach in the traditional way of policy making and that interactive policy mak ing contributed to good end results. Nevertheless, in future comparable processes, more attention should be given to the four discussed critical issues, and probably to the seven mentioned in the introduction. Only than, the rate of success of these kind of processes will increase. References Acland, A.F. 1995. Resolving Disputes without going to Court. London, Century Business Books. Bruijn, H. de, E. ten Heuvelhof and R.J. in ’t Veld. 2002. Process management: Why Project Management Fails in Complex decision making Processes. Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Driessen, P. 1999. Activating a Policy Network; The Case of Mainport Schiphol. in Susskind et al., 1999, The Consensus Building Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Reaching Agreement. Enthoven, G.M.W. and A. de Rooij. 1996. InfraLab; Impuls voor open planvorming en creativiteit.Bestuurskunde, Vol. 5, Issue 8, p. 1-8. Friend, J. and A. Hickling. 2004. Planning Under Pressure, The Strategic Choice Approach. Oxford, Buttorworth/Heinemann. Glasbergen, P. and P.J. Driessen. 2005. Interactive planning of infrastructure: the changing role of Dutch project management. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, Vol. 23, p. 263-277. Khakee A., A. Barbanente and D. Borri. 2000. Expert and experimental knowledge in planning. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 51, No. 7, p. 776-788. Mock, G.A., W. Vanasselt, and E. Petkova. 2003. Rights and reality: Monitoring the public’s right to participate. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, Vol. 9, p. 4-13. Suzzkind, L.S., S. McKearan and J. Thomas-Larmer. 1999. The Consensus Building Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Reaching Agreement. London, SAGE Publications. Appendix 1 – Case sheet Mainport Schiphol (Driessen, 1999) 1. Position Initiative: several governmental ministries Time period: 1980-present Level of used policy process: regional/national Phase in policy process: in process 2. Background This case is about plans to expand Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport and the disputes related to it. Schiphol Airport is situated in a highly urbanized area, and deals with national, continental and intercontinental air traffic. Although its presence is causing many ‘stress’ on its environmental surroundings, the Dutch government wants it to expand, so it can act as a hub for continental and intercontinental air traffic. With this expansion there are two interests at stake: on national level an economic one (because an enlarged Schiphol Airport would increase economic activities), and on regional level an environmental one (because a bigger Schiphol Airport will caus